About: History of Roman and Byzantine domes

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dbpedia-owl:abstract	Domes were a characteristic element of the architecture of Ancient Rome and of its medieval continuation, the Byzantine Empire. They had widespread influence on contemporary and later styles, from Russian and Ottoman architecture to the Italian Renaissance and modern revivals. The domes were customarily hemispherical, although octagonal and segmented shapes are also known, and they developed in form, use, and structure over the centuries. Early examples rested directly on the rotunda walls of round rooms and featured a central oculus for ventilation and light. Pendentives became common in the Byzantine period, provided support for domes over square spaces. Early wooden domes are known only from a literary source, but the use of wooden formwork, concrete, and unskilled labor enabled domes of monumental size in the late Republic and early Imperial period, such as the so-called "Temple of Mercury" bath hall at Baiae. Nero introduced the dome into Roman palace architecture in the 1st century and such rooms served as state banqueting halls, audience rooms, or throne rooms. The Pantheon's dome, the largest and most famous example, was built of concrete in the 2nd century and may have served as an audience hall for Hadrian. Imperial mausolea, such as the Mausoleum of Diocletian, were domed beginning in the 3rd century. Some smaller domes were built with a technique of using ceramic tubes in place of a wooden centering for concrete, or as a permanent structure embedded in the concrete, but light brick became the preferred building material over the course of the 4th and 5th centuries. Brick ribs allowed for a thinner structure and facilitated the use of windows in the supporting walls, replacing the need for an oculus as a light source. Christian baptisteries and shrines were domed in the 4th century, such as the Lateran Baptistery and the likely wooden dome over the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Constantine's octagonal church in Antioch may have been a precedent for similar buildings for centuries afterward. The first domed basilica may have been built in the 5th century, with a church in southern Turkey being the earliest proposed example, but the 6th century architecture of Justinian made domed church architecture standard throughout the Roman east. His Hagia Sophia and Church of the Holy Apostles inspired copies in later centuries. Cruciform churches with domes at their crossings, such as the churches of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki and St. Nicholas at Myra, were typical of 7th and 8th century architecture and bracing a dome with barrel vaults on four sides became the standard structural system. Domes over windowed drums of cylindrical or polygonal shape were standard after the 9th century. In the empire's later period, smaller churches were built with smaller diameter domes, normally less than 6 meters (20 ft) after the 10th century. Exceptions include the 11th century domed-octagons of Hosios Loukas and Nea Moni, and the 12th century Chora Church, among others. The cross-in-square plan, with a single dome at the crossing or five domes in a quincunx pattern, as at the Church of St. Panteleimon, was the most popular type from the 10th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. (en) Las cúpulas fueron un elemento característico de la arquitectura de la Antigua Roma y de su continuación medieval, el Imperio bizantino. Tuvieron una amplia influencia en los estilos contemporáneos y posteriores, desde la arquitectura rusa y otomana hasta la renacentista italiana y los historicismos modernos. Las cúpulas eran habitualmente hemisféricas, aunque también se conocen formas octogonales y segmentadas, y evolucionaron en forma, uso y estructura a lo largo de los siglos. Los primeros ejemplos descansaban directamente sobre los muros rotonda de las salas redondas y presentaban un óculo central para la ventilación y la luz. Las pechinas se hicieron comunes en el período bizantino, proporcionando el soporte para cúpulas sobre espacios cuadrados. Las primeras cúpulas de madera se conocen solo a partir de fuentes literarias, pero el uso de encofrados de madera, hormigón y mano de obra no cualificada permitieron construir cúpulas de tamaño monumental a finales de la República y principios del período imperial, como el llamado salón de baños del "Templo de Mercurio" en Bayas. Nerón introdujo la cúpula en la arquitectura de los palacios romanos en el siglo I, en salas que servían como salas de banquetes estatales, salas de audiencia o salas del trono. La cúpula del Panteón, el ejemplo más grande y famoso, se construyó con hormigón en el siglo II y puede haber servido como sala de audiencias para Adriano. Mausoleos imperiales, como el mausoleo de Diocleciano, fueron cupulados a partir del siglo III. Algunas cúpulas más pequeñas se construyeron con una técnica de usar tubos de cerámica en lugar de una cimbra de madera para el hormigón, o como una estructura permanente incrustada en el hormigón, pero el ladrillo ligero se convirtió en el material de construcción preferido en el transcurso de los siglos IV y V. La disposición de nervaduras de ladrillo permitió estructuras más delgadas y facilitó la perforación de ventanas en los muros de soporte, haciendo innecesario el óculo como fuente de luz. Los baptisterios y santuarios cristianos tenían cúpulas en el siglo IV, como el baptisterio de Letrán y la probable cúpula de madera sobre la iglesia del Santo Sepulcro. La de Constantino puede haber sido un precedente para edificios similares durante los siglos posteriores. La primera basílica cupulada puede haber sido construida en el siglo V, siendo una iglesia en el sur de Turquía el primer ejemplo propuesto, pero la arquitectura del siglo VI de Justiniano hizo que la arquitectura de la iglesia cupulada fuera estándar en todo el oriente romano. Su Hagia Sophia y la iglesia de los Santos Apóstoles inspiraron copias en siglos posteriores. Las iglesias cruciformes con cúpulas en sus cruceros, como las iglesias de Hagia Sophia en Tesalónica y , fueron típicas de la arquitectura de los siglos VII y VIII y el refuerzo de una cúpula con bóvedas de cañón en los cuatro lados se convirtió en el sistema estructural estándar. Las cúpulas sobre tambores de forma cilíndrica o poligonal con ventanas fueron estándar después del siglo IX. En el período del imperio tardío, se construyeron iglesias más pequeñas con cúpulas de menor diámetro, normalmente de menos de 6 m después del siglo X. Son excepciones los octógonos cupulados del siglo XI de los monasterios de Hosios Loukas y Nea Moni, y la iglesia de Chora del siglo XII, entre otros. La planta de cruz inscrita en un cuadrado, con una única cúpula en el crucero o cinco cúpulas dispuestas en un patrón de quincunx, como en la iIglesia de San Pantaleón, fue el tipo más popular desde el siglo X hasta la caída de Constantinopla en 1453. * * * (es) كانت القباب عنصرًا مميزًا في العمارة الرومانية القديمة منذ العصور الوسطى وخلال فترة الإمبراطورية البيزنطية. كان للعمارة تأثير واسع على أساليب تلك الفترة وما جاء من بعدها، من العمارة الروسية والعثمانية وحتى عمارة عصر النهضة الايطالية وحركات الإحياء المعمارية الحديثة. عادة ما يكون شكل القباب نصف كروي، ولكن عُرفت أشكال أخرى كالقباب المثمنة أو المقطعة، وقد تطور شكل القباب ووظيفتها وهيكلها على مر العصور. من أمثلة القباب الرائدة القباب فوق جدران الروطن وهي حجرة دائرية يتوسط سقفها فتحة الأوكولوس الدائرية التي تؤمن التهوية وتسمح بمرور الضوء (تُسمى باللاتينية أوكولوس، أي عين). انتشرت الحنية الكروية في الفترة البيزنطية، لتساعد بتثبيت القباب المراد إنشاؤها فوق الحجرات المربعة. عرفت القباب الخشبية من مصادر الكتابات الأدبية فقط، إلا أن استخدام القوالب الخشبية، والخرسانة، والعمالة غير الماهرة جعل بناء القباب هائلة الحجم ممكنًا في الفترة المتأخرة من العصر الجمهوري وحتى مطلع الفترة الإمبراطورية، كما في قاعة الاستحمام التابعة للمعبد المسمى «معبد ميركوري» في بايه الرومانية. جلب الإمبراطور نيرون القباب إلى العمارة الرومانية في القرن الأول، وكان هذا النوع من الغرف قاعات للمناسبات، أو غرفًا للجماهير، أو غرفًا للعرش. تُعتبر قبة البانثيون أكبر الأمثلة على ذلك وأشهرها، إذ بنيت من الخرسانة في القرن الثاني وكانت قاعة لجماهير الإمبراطور هادريان. بدأ بناء الأضرحة الإمبراطورية المقببة كضريح دقلديانوس في القرن الثالث. بنيت القباب الصغيرة باستخدام الأنابيب الخزفية بدلًا من التوسيط الخشبي للخرسانة، أو بشكل هيكل دائم مغروس في الخرسانة، ولكن أصبح الطوب الخفيف مادة البناء المفضلة على مدار القرنين الرابع والخامس. ساعدت أضلاع الطوب الصغيرة في تقليل سمك هيكل البناء وتسهيل عملية شق النوافذ في الجدران الداعمة، فلم تعد هناك حاجة إلى فتحة الأوكولوس لإدخال الضوء. بدأ بناء القبب على المعموديات والأضرحة المسيحية في القرن الرابع، كمعمودية لاتران والقبة الخشبية المشهورة أعلى كنيسة القيامة. قد تكون القبة القسطنطينية الثمانية في كنيسة القبر المقدس سابقةً للأبنية المشابهة لها في القرون التي تلتها. ربما بُنيت أول قبة على كاتدرائيات البازيليكا في القرن الخامس، وأول الأمثلة المعروفة على ذلك كانت لكنيسة في جنوب تركيا، لكن العمارة في حكم الإمبراطور جستينيان الأول في القرن السادس جعلت بناء الكنائس المقببة مقياسًا موحدًا للعمارة في أنحاء الشرق الروماني. استُوحيت الكثير من المباني في القرون اللاحقة من عمارة كاتدرائيته آيا صوفيا وكنيسة الرسل المقدسة. كانت الكنائس الصليبية ذات القباب المتقاطعة في المعابر، مثل كاتدرائية آيا صوفيا في ثيسالونيكي وكنيسة القديس نقولا في ميرا، سائدة في عمارة القرنين السابع والثامن، وأصبح تثبيت القباب بالأروقة الاسطوانية على أربعة محاور مبدًا قياسيًا للنظام الهيكلي في البناء. كان بناء القباب على الرقاب الدائرية أو المضلعة التي شُقت فيها النوافذ مقياسًا للبناء أيضًا بعد القرن التاسع. بنيت في الفترة اللاحقة من الإمبراطورية كنائس أصغر مع قباب ذات قطر أصغر من القطر السابق، عادةً بطول أقل من ستة أمتار (20 قدمًا) بعد القرن العاشر. تشمل الاستثناءات القباب المثمنة في دير هوسيوس لوكاس ودير نيا موني في القرن الحادي عشر، وكنيسة خورا في القرن الثاني عشر، مع استثناءات أخرى. كانت الخطة المتقاطعة في البناء، مع قبة واحدة عند المعبر أو خمس قباب على نمط كوينكونكس (ترتيب لخمس وحدات بشكل يشابه ترتيب النقاط الخمس في النرد) كما في كنيسة القديس بندلايمون، ذات شعبية واسعة في القرن العاشر وحتى سقوط القسطنطينية في عام 1453. (ar)
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comment	كانت القباب عنصرًا مميزًا في العمارة الرومانية القديمة منذ العصور الوسطى وخلال فترة الإمبراطورية البيزنطية. كان للعمارة تأثير واسع على أساليب تلك الفترة وما جاء من بعدها، من العمارة الروسية والعثمانية وحتى عمارة عصر النهضة الايطالية وحركات الإحياء المعمارية الحديثة. عادة ما يكون شكل القباب نصف كروي، ولكن عُرفت أشكال أخرى كالقباب المثمنة أو المقطعة، وقد تطور شكل القباب ووظيفتها وهيكلها على مر العصور. من أمثلة القباب الرائدة القباب فوق جدران الروطن وهي حجرة دائرية يتوسط سقفها فتحة الأوكولوس الدائرية التي تؤمن التهوية وتسمح بمرور الضوء (تُسمى باللاتينية أوكولوس، أي عين). انتشرت الحنية الكروية في الفترة البيزنطية، لتساعد بتثبيت القباب المراد إنشاؤها فوق الحجرات المربعة. (ar) Domes were a characteristic element of the architecture of Ancient Rome and of its medieval continuation, the Byzantine Empire. They had widespread influence on contemporary and later styles, from Russian and Ottoman architecture to the Italian Renaissance and modern revivals. The domes were customarily hemispherical, although octagonal and segmented shapes are also known, and they developed in form, use, and structure over the centuries. Early examples rested directly on the rotunda walls of round rooms and featured a central oculus for ventilation and light. Pendentives became common in the Byzantine period, provided support for domes over square spaces. (en) Las cúpulas fueron un elemento característico de la arquitectura de la Antigua Roma y de su continuación medieval, el Imperio bizantino. Tuvieron una amplia influencia en los estilos contemporáneos y posteriores, desde la arquitectura rusa y otomana hasta la renacentista italiana y los historicismos modernos. Las cúpulas eran habitualmente hemisféricas, aunque también se conocen formas octogonales y segmentadas, y evolucionaron en forma, uso y estructura a lo largo de los siglos. Los primeros ejemplos descansaban directamente sobre los muros rotonda de las salas redondas y presentaban un óculo central para la ventilación y la luz. Las pechinas se hicieron comunes en el período bizantino, proporcionando el soporte para cúpulas sobre espacios cuadrados. (es)
label	Historia de las cúpulas romanas y bizantinas (es) History of Roman and Byzantine domes (en) تاريخ القباب الرومانية والبيزنطية (ar)
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